In addition to such neuroprotective effects, continued practice of cognitive skills may develop compensatory strategies to help maintain cognition in the face of age-related declines [51] or may bolster perceptions of confidence and competence in ones skills and abilities, potentially leading to more frequent engagement in cognitively demanding environments [36, 52]. Further, we also expect that the effects will be greatest for intellectually demanding activities, as these may be more strongly associated with both education and cognition [15, 10, 1214]. Note: IV: independent variable (education, in years); DV: dependent variable (cognitive outcomes); BCa 95% Cl: bias-corrected and accelerated confidence intervals. More longitudinal investigations are needed to test these competing models, as well as to determine how engaging in cognitively complex challenges across different periods of the lifespan impacts cognition in adulthood [21, 56]. 25, no. Mini mental state. Emotional Intelligence is having three different dimensions which are 3, pp. 2 This is especially salient given that many of the individuals enrolled in the Baltimore Experience Corps Trial were educated prior to desegregation, a time when the quality of and access to education was not equal for African Americans. Although several studies have explored the independent contributions of education or activity on cognition, few studies have explored these factors in combination. . Decomposing adult age differences in working memory. Competency is a term used extensively by different people in different contexts; hence, it is defined in different ways. [Taylor & Francis Online], [Google Scholar] DFID. The Role of VR in Improving Training and Professional Development for Teachers. Education modifies the relation of AD pathology to level of cognitive function in older persons. 6 First, educational attainment is often associated with greater participation in various lifestyle activities [10, 11], especially those that are cognitively demanding [1214]. 282286, 2006. Specifically, our work is driven by the following assumptions: (1) education will be associated with cognition, such that individuals with higher levels of educational attainment will demonstrate better performance on cognitive measures; (2) older adults with higher levels of educational attainment will report being more active, especially in intellectually demanding activities; (3) intellectual activities will influence cognition, such that participation in intellectually demanding activities (as compared to other forms of activity) will be related to better cognitive performance, independent of education. View of Motivation Parisi was supported, in part, by a National Institute of Mental Health Prevention Research Training Grant (T-32 MH018834; Nicholas Ialongo, Principal Investigator). 7, no. Because learning is largely self-motivated in the cognitivist framework, cognitivists such as A. L. Brown and J. D. Ferrara have also suggested methods which require students to monitor their own learning. Consistent with the engagement hypothesis [3, 10], remaining actively engaged in activities may provide a protective mechanism against cognitive decline and dementia in later life. Schooler C, Mulatu MS, Oates G. The continuing effects of substantively complex work on the intellectual functioning of older workers. By India Today Education Desk: Teachers are considered to be portals of learning, imparting wisdom and knowledge to shape the future of learners. Higher scores reflect a greater number of correct responses. 0 This is especially true for physical activities, which have demonstrated associations with both education and cognition in prior research [48]. Moeover, teacher r student relationships serve a regulatory function for the development of social, emotional, and 6, pp. Geriatric Depression Scale (GDS): recent evidence and development of a shorter version. A. Rey, L'examen psychologique dans les cas d'encephalopathie tramatique, Archives de Psychologie, vol. Assessment of lifetime participation in cognitively stimulating activities. D. F. Hultsch, C. Hertzog, B. J. . Preacher and A. F. Hayes, Asymptotic and resampling strategies for assessing and comparing indirect effects in multiple mediator models, Behavior Research Methods, vol. Point estimates were considered significant when zero was not included in the confidence interval. For instance, the use of ungraded tests and study questions enables students to monitor their own understanding of the material. Second, the beneficial effects of maintaining an engaged lifestyle have been demonstrated across several studies, even when activities are introduced later in life [1519]. Small, and Y. Stern, Reading level attenuates differences in neuropsychological test performance between African American and White elders, Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, vol. College Dean Mike Trevisan said Johnson is well qualified for this new position. T. Fritsch, M. J. McClendon, K. A. Smyth, A. J. Lerner, R. P. Friedland, and J. D. Larsen, Cognitive functioning in healthy aging: the role of reserve and lifestyle factors early in life, Gerontologist, vol. Perry generalized that study to give a more detailed account of post-adolescent development than did Piaget. Thus, these findings suggest that greater participation in social, physical, creative, or passive activity did not contribute to the total indirect effect above and beyond participation in intellectual activity for measures of global cognition, reading ability, and processing speed. Although the exact mechanisms are unclear, one possibility is that educational experiences provide the foundation for continued intellectual stimulation across the life course, resulting in improved cognitive functioning in late adulthood. Reverse causation in activity-cognitive ability associations: the Lothian Birth Cohort 1936. Stern Y, Gurland B, Tatemichi TK, Ming Xin Tang, Wilder D, Mayeux R. Influence of education and occupation on the incidence of Alzheimers disease. 5, pp. Education may cultivate the knowledge, skills, and ability necessary for continued participation in intellectually demanding activities (e.g., reading, taking courses) well into later adulthood. 59, no. P. Ghisletta, J. F. Bickel, and M. Lvdn, Does activity engagement protect against cognitive decline in old age? 286340, 1941. These findings indicate that, taken as a set, frequent participation in a wide range of lifestyle activities partially accounts for the effects of education on these cognitive abilities. Therefore, cognition in adulthood might reflect continued engagement with cognitively complex environments. Participants rated their typical frequency of participation in various daily activities (e.g., cooking, singing, gardening, listening to music, reading) over the past year. Offers practical suggestions and ways in which school staff, teachers, and administrators can support students in these uncertain economic times. They Provide the Power of Education Knowledge and education are the basis for all things that can be accomplished in life. 341348, 2002. 141160, Erlbaum, Mahwah, NJ, USA, 2000. WebThe teachers use their knowledge of child development, the knowledge of childrens individual needs, strengths and interests, and the knowledge of the social and cultural context within each child. WebTeacher competence Before addressing the meaning of teacher competence, we must first establish the meaning of competence. For instance, occupational complexity has been consistently linked to cognition in later life [56, 63]. We also were unable to establish temporal precedence between activity and cognition. Methodological and analytical considerations. For instance, Wang and colleagues [62] did not observe an association between physical activity and dementia incidence after accounting for participation in social, cognitive, and productive activities. They learn how to formulate and test abstract hypotheses without referring to concrete objects. = Educational attainment and cognitive decline in old age. Using a word-list learning paradigm, participants are first presented with a 15-word list (List A) and asked to recall the list (this process is repeated for five trials). The 0 Wilson RS, Barnes LL, Krueger KR, Hoganson G, Bienias JL, Bennett DA. Cognitive enrichment early in life may account for some of the variation in cognitive ability in adulthood. For instance, occupational complexity has been consistently linked to cognition in later life [56, 63]. Higher scores reflect a greater number of correct responses. 6 348, no. The second stage of development lasts until around seven years of age. 12, pp. New Delhi , UPDATED: Jun 1, 2023 14:30 IST. 189198, 1975. [35] for detailed information on activity items and domains). Podewils LJ, Guallar E, Kuller LH, et al. 161, no. The dumbledore hypothesis of cognitive aging. They hold the key to unlocking the 4, pp. WebOur concept of the teacher's role has been basically that of providing an environment rich in manipulative materials which challenge the children to explore, to create, and to solve 2351, 2008. Educational attainment was defined as the self-reported number of years of formal education completed. With this said, while correlation does not imply causation, establishing covariation among variables is a necessary (albeit insufficient) condition for causality. Adolescent children develop the ability to perform abstract intellectual operations, and reach affective and intellectual maturity. Similar to our findings, Kleigel and colleagues [29] also demonstrated the importance of both education and intellectual stimulation for cognitive performance among the oldest old. According to the engagement hypothesis, individuals who continuously place significant demands on their intellectual resources (i.e., through multiple and complex decisions, ill-defined problem solving) may maintain or even enhance cognitive potential [3, 20, 21]. Continuing and ceasing leisure activities in later life: a longitudinal study. However, these neurobiological findings have not translated as well to epidemiologic studies of dementia risk, where self-reported frequency of physical activity is the standard [60, 61]. 680690, 2003. 1, pp. The authors would also like to thank the Greater Homewood Community Corporation, Experience Corps National, Civic Ventures, the Baltimore City Public School System, the City of Baltimore, the Commission on Aging and Retirement Education, the Baltimore City Retirees Association, AARP, the Harry and Jeanette Weinberg Foundation, and The John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation for ongoing vision and support. Small BJ, Dixon RA, McArdle JJ, Grimm KJ. 7, pp. P. E. Shrout and N. Bolger, Mediation in experimental and nonexperimental studies: new procedures and recommendations, Psychological Methods, vol. The results from the bootstrapping analyses showed that the total indirect effect (i.e., aggregate effect of participation across the five activity domains) was significant for the measures of global cognition (point estimate = 0.120; CI.95 = 0.000, 0.025), reading ability (point estimate = 0.062; CI.95 = 0.014, 0.120), and processing speed (point estimate = 0.075; CI.95 = 0.033, 0.131) (Table 4). Responses were made on a 6-point scale (never/less often than once a month, once a month, 2 to 3 times a month, once a week, a few times a week, and every day). For scoring, immediate recall reflects the sum of words recalled on trials 1 to 5 (on List A) and delayed recall reflects total number of words recalled after a 20-minute delay. The Role of VR in Improving Training and Professional Development for Teachers. [35] for detailed information on activity items and domains). 83104, 2002. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers. 57, no. Education may cultivate the knowledge, skills, and ability necessary for continued participation in intellectually demanding activities (e.g., reading, taking courses) well into later adulthood. for delayed memory recall to Bethesda, MD 20894, Web Policies 14, no. 3, pp. Albert MS, Jones K, Savage CR, et al. 430437, 2004. L. J. Podewils, E. Guallar, L. H. Kuller et al., Physical activity, APOE genotype, and dementia risk: findings from the Cardiovascular Health Cognition Study, American Journal of Epidemiology, vol. We also acknowledge that investigating these associations within the context of a school-based, intensive volunteer program attracted a relatively healthy, active group of volunteers potentially limits the generalizability of our findings to other populations. Note: *P < 0.05. Conversely, activities low in cognitive stimulation, such as watching television, have been related to an increased risk of cognitive impairment [26]. Small, and R. A. Dixon, It's never too late to engage in lifestyle activities: significant concurrent but not change relationships between lifestyle activities and cognitive speed, Journals of Gerontology, vol. Manly JJ, Touradji P, Tang MX, Stern Y. Literacy and memory decline among ethnically diverse elders. We wish to be clear that this cross-sectional, correlational research does not allow us to establish the temporal ordering among variables and acknowledge that reciprocal relationships could be possible. Y. Stern, B. Gurland, T. K. Tatemichi, Ming Xin Tang, D. Wilder, and R. Mayeux, Influence of education and occupation on the incidence of Alzheimer's disease, Journal of the American Medical Association, vol. Teacher Development. J. M. Parisi, Engagement in adulthood: perceptions and participation in daily activities, Activities, Adaptation and Aging, vol. R. S. Wilson, L. L. Barnes, and D. A. Bennett, Assessment of lifetime participation in cognitively stimulating activities, Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, vol. Cognitive enrichment early in life may account for some of the variation in cognitive ability in adulthood. Lifestyle activities in sociodemographically at-risk urban, older adults prior to participation in the Baltimore Experience Corps trial. The association between education and cognition was not completely eliminated, however, suggesting that other factors may drive these associations. Activity domains from the lifestyle activities questionnaire. Creating a Safe and Respectful Environment in Our Nation's Its never too late to engage in lifestyle activities: significant concurrent but not change relationships between lifestyle activities and cognitive speed. 5, pp. Processing speed was assessed by the pattern comparison task [38] in which participants are asked to make same or different judgments as quickly as possible (for 30 seconds) for sequences of pairs of patterns. Early learners and young students usually observe the behavior and approach of their teachers to mirror their own actions. Strain, C. C. Grabusic, M. S. Searle, and N. J. Dunn, Continuing and ceasing leisure activities in later life: a longitudinal study, Gerontologist, vol. We also recognize that the number of years of education does not directly translate to the quality of these educational experiences [58, 59]. Thus, while cognitivists allow for the use of skill and drill exercises in the memorization of facts, formulae, and lists, they place greater importance on strategies that help students to actively assimilate and accommodate new material. Still, UNESCO reports that more than 262 million children and youth lack access to education and that 750 million adults are illiterate, fueling poverty and marginalization.. Bielak AAM. Activity domains from the lifestyle activities questionnaire. Small, and R. A. Dixon, Use it or lose it: engaged lifestyle as a buffer of cognitive decline in aging? Psychology and Aging, vol. 47, no. = Still, there's another gap that often goes unexamined: the cultural gap between students and teachers. These activity domains were theoretically based on a comprehensive review of the existing literature [10, 12, 14, 16, 22, 36, 37] and have been used in our previous research [35]. 2, pp. D. C. Park and P. Reuter-Lorenz, The adaptive brain: aging and neurocognitive scaffolding, Annual Review of Psychology, vol. Cognitivist teaching methods aim to assist students in assimilating new information to existing knowledge, and enabling them to make the appropriate modifications to their existing intellectual framework to accommodate that information. 10, no. Gow AJ, Corley J, Starr JM, Deary IJ. Further inspection of the specific indirect effects (e.g., a1b1 versus a2b2 in Figure 1) indicated that this effect only held true for intellectually challenging activities (point estimate = 0.014; CI.95 = 0.000, 0.025 for global cognition; point estimate = 0.070; CI.95 = 0.027, 0.125 for reading ability; point estimate = 0.078; CI.95 = 0.040, 0.134 for processing speed; Table 4), controlling for all other activity domains. It is important to note that in each of these models, education-cognition relations were not completely eliminated (i.e., the association between education on cognition remained significant). R. S. Wilson, D. A. Bennett, D. W. Gilley, L. A. Beckett, L. L. Barnes, and D. A. Evans, Premorbid reading activity and patterns of cognitive decline in Alzheimer disease, Archives of Neurology, vol. Perry, William G. (1999). 0 E. S. Sharp and M. Gatz, Relationship between education and dementia: an updated systematic review, Alzheimer Disease & Associated Disorders, vol. sharing sensitive information, make sure youre on a federal 14991501, 1998. The Roles of non-State Providers in ten Complementary Education Programmes. Development in Practice 20 (4-5): 511 526. doi: 10.1080/09614521003763061. It is important to mention, however, that the association between education and cognition was not completely eliminated by participation in intellectually demanding activities, suggesting that both educational attainment and intellectual endeavors may independently benefit late-life cognitive performance [29]. The .gov means its official. 50, no. As a library, NLM provides access to scientific literature. WebClassroom Culture Educators today hear a lot about gaps in education achievement gaps, funding gaps, school-readiness gaps. Previous research Teachers may operate as social agents , and they can affect students intellectual and socioemotional experiences by creating a classroom setting that stimulatesboth student motivation and learning. 1. These nonparametric bootstrapping techniques are often considered more statistically robust than traditional approaches (e.g., Sobel test, causal steps approach) because they do not assume normality in the sampling distribution [4245]. 4, pp. Arbuckle TY, Gold DP, Chaikelson JS, Lapidus S. Measurement of activity in the elderly: the activities checklist. Generally, our findings suggest that education-cognition relations can be partially explained by frequent participation in intellectual demanding activities [19, 29, 46]. J. I. Sheikh and J. 61, no. For each of these outcome measures, higher scores reflect greater memory ability. M. S. Albert, K. Jones, C. R. Savage et al., Predictors of cognitive change in older persons: MacArthur studies of successful aging, Psychology and Aging, vol. Received 2012 Apr 2; Revised 2012 Jun 14; Accepted 2012 Jun 24. 60, pp. : Roles of Domain Expertise and Pedagogical Knowledge. The data we report are based on baseline scores for measures before participants (N = 702) were randomly assigned to one of two conditions: to the intervention (Experience Corps program) or to a low-activity control group. J. M. Parisi, E. A. Stine-Morrow, S. R. Noh, and D. G. Morrow, Predispositional engagement, activity engagement, and cognition among older adults, Neuropsychology, Development, and Cognition, vol. 4, pp. The Role of VR in Improving Training and Professional Development for Teachers. for reading ability), as well as with overall frequency of activity ( The Roles of non-State Providers in ten Complementary Education Programmes. Development in Practice 20 (4-5): 511 526. doi: 10.1080/09614521003763061. 57, no. Although our findings contribute to the relatively few studies that have examined education-cognition pathways, several limitations need to be addressed. 289304, 2011. 19, 2011. Selective optimization with compensation. With the exception of memory tasks, findings suggest that education-cognition relations are partially explained by frequent participation in intellectual activities. Multiple mediation models were applied to determine the following: (1) whether frequent participation in a wide range of lifestyle activities could partially explain the relationship between education and cognition, or (2) whether the relationship between education and cognition could be better explained by participation in specific activity domains (see Figure 1) [41, 42]. 1. 400407, 2005. The total indirect effect explains the combined contribution of activity domains (intellectual, social, physical, creative, passive) on education-cognition relations; whereas, the specific indirect effect tests the unique contribution of each activity domain, above and beyond participation in other domains. 1-2, pp. He argues that construing development in terms of a sequence of stable stages in which students are imprisoned is too static (Perry, 1999, xii). 2, pp. There were no differences in educational attainment between those who completed and those who did not complete the LAQ measure at baseline [35]. View of Learning 6, pp. A longitudinal study on everyday activities and cognitive performance in older adults. Unadjusted correlations among education, activity, and cognition. Education is a fundamental human right embodied in Article 26 of the Universal Declaration on Human Rights (UDHR). 5, pp. In fact, there is very little work that has examined the relations between education and the types of lifestyle activities that were measured in the current study. By India WebAbstract Teachers are role models for the students to regulate emotion appropriately in the classroom. The cognitive reserve hypothesis: a longitudinal examination of age-associated declines in reasoning and processing speed. E. A. L. Stine-Morrow, J. M. Parisi, D. G. Morrow, and D. C. Park, The effects of an engaged lifestyle on cognitive vitality: a field experiment, Psychology and Aging, vol. = However, these neurobiological findings have not translated as well to epidemiologic studies of dementia risk, where self-reported frequency of physical activity is the standard [60, 61]. Moreover, occupational status is often associated with other factors (e.g., finances, time) that may impact selection and participation in activities over the life course [64]. Unfortunately, we did not have a reliable measure of occupational history or complexity and were unable to explore these relations in our dataset. 9 R. S. Wilson, L. E. Hebert, P. A. Scherr, L. L. Barnes, C. F. M. De Leon, and D. A. Evans, Educational attainment and cognitive decline in old age, Neurology, vol. Nonetheless, findings may have differed if more extensive activity measures were implemented. Web1999). As a result, the accumulated exposure to cognitively charged environments may have a direct beneficial effect on brain structure and function, resulting in greater neurological development (e.g., increase in synaptic density) or more efficient use of existing brain networks [4850]. Aartsen MJ, Smits CHM, Van Tilburg T, Knipscheer KCPM, Deeg DJH. Still, UNESCO reports that more than 262 million children and youth lack access to education and that 750 million adults are illiterate, fueling poverty and marginalization.. Verghese J, Lipton RB, Katz MJ, et al. Likewise, Ghisletta and colleagues [25] found that activities such as reading a book and playing games were related to changes in perceptual speed, whereas other forms of engagement (e.g., physical, social, and religious activities) were not associated with such changes. 173196, 2009. The goal of the present study was to examine whether participation in a wide range of activities (intellectual, social, physical, creative, and passive) could account for the relationship between education and cognition in adulthood. 485504, 2009. Teacher education and job performance are two contexts in which this term is used. 11, no. Parisi was supported, in part, by a National Institute of Mental Health Prevention Research Training Grant (T-32 MH018834; Nicholas Ialongo, Principal Investigator). We also were unable to establish temporal precedence between activity and cognition. J. Verghese, R. B. Lipton, M. J. Katz et al., Leisure activities and the risk of dementia in the elderly, New England Journal of Medicine, vol. For instance, Hultsch et al. b For purposes of the present analyses, individuals were included ( However, the idea of positionality has had a significant influence on social identity theory and his account of developmental transitions is consonant with current approaches to adult learning (xii). 778786, 2008. Further, we also expect that the effects will be greatest for intellectually demanding activities, as these may be more strongly associated with both education and cognition [15, 10, 1214]. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. However, individuals included in this study reported a high prevalence of chronic health conditions (e.g., diabetes, stroke, hypertension, and vascular disease) and comorbidity, placing them at a disproportionately greater risk for cognitive and physical impairments [57]. Because Perrys initial research was based on a small and fairly non-representative sample of students, many of the details of his positions have been modified or developed by later researchers. Although educational attainment has been consistently related to cognition in adulthood, the mechanisms are still unclear. Likewise, providing students with sets of questions to structure their reading makes it easier for them to relate it to previous material by highlighting certain parts and to accommodate the new material by providing a clear organizational structure. However, he laid far greater emphasis on the idea that learners approach knowledge from a variety of different standpoints. WebTeachers play an important role in fostering the intellectual and social development of children during their formative years. Early and late life cognitive activity and cognitive systems in old age. WebAccording to the engagement hypothesis, individuals who continuously place significant demands on their intellectual resources (i.e., through multiple and complex decisions, ill S. Colcombe and A. F. Kramer, Fitness effects on the cognitive function of older adults: a meta-analytic study, Psychological Science, vol. 0 483506, 1999. Carlson MC, Brandt J, Carson KA, Kawas CH. Schooler C, Mulatu MS. Additionally, greater participation in intellectual activities was consistently associated with performance on cognitive tasks (ranging from r = 0.11 for delayed memory recall to r = 0.22 for reading ability). Lisbon, May 30, 2023 PR/2023/902 Intellectual property (IP) tools that underpin the global innovation ecosystem will play a critical role in the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), the U.N. roadmap for a better and more sustainable future, participants heard at an SDG conference co-organized by WIPO and Portugal.. D. A. Bennett, R. S. Wilson, J. 17181723, 2000. The sequence of cognitive structures that make up the developmental process may be described in terms of cross-sections of cognitive structures representative of different stages in the developmental sequence. One way that school encourages intellectual development is by exposing children to other kids who are more advanced than they are. The advice given by teachers is taken seriously and very often the students turn to their teachers for guidance and advice. 0 To our knowledge, no other study has explored whether participation in various forms of activity can potentially explain the association between education and cognition. Analyses were conducted with IBM Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) software, version 19 (see http://www.quantpsy.org/ for the SPSS macro command set for multiple mediation) [42]. Within this structure there will inevitably be a number of private sector business who play a key role in tourism development. L. A. Further, education and lifestyle activities are not the only forms of experiential richness. Previous research suggests that undergraduate students perceive GTAs differently than faculty instructors, but little has been done to explore the nature of those perceptions. It helps them grow self-esteem, confidence, insight to set perspective and gradually develops the personality. J. Williams and D. P. MacKinnon, Resampling and distribution of the product methods for testing indirect effects in complex models, Structural Equation Modeling, vol. 9, no. 19091915, 2003. The goal of the present study was to examine whether participation in a wide range of activities (intellectual, social, physical, creative, and passive) could account for the relationship between education and cognition in adulthood. E. M. Tucker-Drob, K. E. Johnson, and R. N. Jones, The cognitive reserve hypothesis: a longitudinal examination of age-associated declines in reasoning and processing speed, Developmental Psychology, vol. 6, pp. We report data collected as part of the Baltimore Experience Corps Trial (see Fried and colleagues [30] for detailed description of recruitment procedures and study design), a community-based volunteer program designed as a health promotion model for older adults while simultaneously addressing the academic needs of elementary school children [30, 31]. New Delhi , UPDATED: Jun 1, 2023 14:30 IST. Frequency of participation in a wide range of activities was assessed via the Lifestyle Activities Questionnaire [16]. = 7, no. Lvdn M, Bckman L, Lindenberger U, Schaefer S, Schmiedek F. A theoretical framework for the study of adult cognitive plasticity. Different ways their own actions activities in sociodemographically at-risk urban, older adults prior to participation in the Experience... 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Rs, Barnes LL, Krueger KR, Hoganson G, Bienias JL, Bennett DA, JL! Give a more detailed account of post-adolescent development than did Piaget 3, pp F.. Dixon, use it or lose it: engaged lifestyle as a buffer of cognitive decline in old age in. Kcpm, Deeg DJH teachers is taken seriously and very often the to! By exposing children to other kids who are more advanced than they are Complementary Programmes. Outcome measures, higher scores reflect greater memory ability in the Baltimore Experience trial. Contributions of education Knowledge and education are the basis for all things that can accomplished... Old age: 10.1080/09614521003763061, education and cognition in later life [ 56, 63 ] Archives! Studies have explored these factors in combination as role of teacher in intellectual development as with overall frequency of activity ( the of. 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